6. Violence in mythologies

In addition to the already mentioned explanations and reasons for aggressive human tensions and violent behaviour, I will emphasize also the mythological explanations of violence in different cultures and religions. In some mythologies and religions, cosmogonies still do not comprise violence or at least are not explicitly expressed. Yet in the explanations concerning human society and the development and establishment of divine hierarchies, almost all mythologies and religions describe the appearance of violence and aggression. In Christian cosmogony the world and the universe are created without a violent act, through divine interference. When the first humans were created and expelled from paradise, violence was mentioned for the first time when Cain murdered his brother Abel [4]  (Castellan, 1968). Greek cosmogony does not imply violence either, however already after the first procreation Cronos[5]  ate his children in the fear that one of them might kill him and take over the dominion over the universe (Pinsent, 1983). In Maori cosmogony there is a tendency toward violent acts because children of Papa and Range [6]  consider murdering their parents in order to separate the mother-earth from the father-sky. They were stopped by Tane-Mahuta[7], who proposed to simply separate father from mother to gain the appropriate space for their habitat. He proposed the sky should be supported by trees, which will prevent the unification of the earth and the sky. Violence appears when the youngest brother Tu-Mata-Uenga [8]  employs hostile acts to assure food and enough intimate living space. He introduces hostility, killing and wars (Pomare, 1987). Cosmogony of the Boschongo people from Bantu group understands the creation of the world and the sky as the work of the creator god Bumba. He created the sky, the stars, the moon and living beings by vomiting. First he created the animals out of which other living beings evolved. He also created three sons, one of which (the thunder) was sent to the sky, causing too much damage on earth. Since that time he is still shooting thunderbolts down on earth, angry with his father. 

In accordance with the myth we can perceive thunderstorms, fire and inundations as violent expressions of god’s aggression, or in our case modes to release frustrating tensions, caused by banishment and loss of home and relatives. Legends and myths regarding shaman initiations, though, in different societies represent the thunderbolt as a healing media with other supernatural powers. Kalweit (1987, pp. 47-48) considers the Lightning shamans as the strongest shamans who have to surpass death. Navaho people perform healing ceremonies on people who survive lightning strikes. Healers claim that divinity of sky, rain and thunderbolt is angry with such individuals. After the healing is over some of the patients are trained and initiated as shamans. 

Thus in many mythologies we can trace the employment of violence by spirits and gods in revenging acts. Čolović (2000, pp. 12-19) argues that revenge and cruelty are two of the basic characteristics of pagan gods. In many situations they are merciless, nervous and huffish, which is the case also for the Slavic gods Dabog and Vsevid. However, mythic characteristics can be de-sacralised and transmitted to popular heroes, as in the case of Hyduck warriors and heroes. In popular songs they are depicted as fearless fighters against any enemies, yet at the same time they are perceived as violent men, cruel towards their wives and relatives. They can be compared with the notion of malandro, where the man is on one side a respected warrior against repression and on the other a dangerous and violent man of the streets. Such capoeira warrior was also Besóuro Mangaga.

In some mythologies there are also hero ancestors and gods that sacrifice their life to protect other people. They are the subjects of the deepest love and respect, but at the same time they also represent a potential source of danger. Their victim represents an object through which the evil force of death has not been vacated, but is rather stuck in their bodies. The protector is more vital; a strongest power is needed for his annihilation and he represents more danger for those who do not fulfil his expectations (ibid.). Violence and fear are not only a means of managing relationships between individuals and groups, but also a means of establishing and controlling relationships between men and deities, between deities themselves and between dead ancestors and the living members of a particular society. 

Despite the fact that aggression and violence are present in mythologies, I could not comprehend why both phenomena are such important attributes in relationships between the gods and between gods and humans. It is clear that aggression followed by violence is related to negative emotions of deities or humans. Offences, shortage of intimate space, not respecting the rules, disobedience, etc. evoke negative feelings in deities and men, which are released with the employment of violence. I can take into consideration the Netsilik Eskimo people’s stories about the development of earthly life, the Nepalese Magar people’s stories or the stories of aboriginal Australian people. Kalweit (1987, pp. 8-10) argues that Netsilik differentiate between various periods of human societies’ development. First there was the golden age where people and animals lived in harmony. Both were able to transform from either animal form into human form or vice versa. They could fly and live on earth or in heaven. Animals were considered to be loyal friends and in these primordial times together with humans and spirits formed One Cosmos. Living beings were able to communicate with gods and travel through time and dimensions. Universal knowledge was accessible to anyone. Australian Aborigines (Kalweit, pp. 8-10) are familiar with the notion of different ages and claim that there was a time when it was possible to live out of time and space, to transform and incorporate supernatural powers. An ancient cosmic catastrophe has destroyed the harmony and unity of humankind. Death appears the soul and body became divided notions. The Magar people divide (Kalweit, pp. 8-10) the existence of the universe into the pre-ancient golden age and dark age of the present time. In the first one there were no illnesses, aging or evil characteristics. Subsequently, there were four evolutional stages of rituals and sacrifices in the first stage, and conflict beliefs and contradictory ideas that led to the development of enthusiasm and illnesses in second stage. The third stage introduced bloodthirsty rules, greed and suffering. The fourth stage represents the iron age of present day, where death, danger, wars, suffering and material lust control humanity. In the last stage the first shaman Puran Tsanappears and recognises the evil spirits and sorcerers who cause misery and sickness.

In capoeira it is believed that aggression was harmful for the capoeirista trying to flee from senzala, yet he had to be fully violent in the moment of attack. He had to disable the opponent assuring the possibility to escape. Mythologies in capoeira exist in narrations of first senzala capoeiristas of Zumbi, and of Besóuro Mangaga. Those narratives are explaining different stages in development of capoeira, explaining its attitudes toward violence and aggression. As I have been frequently told first capoeiristas were violent but not aggressive. Zumbi was both aggressive and violent in his fights to save the quilombo. The capoeiristas from the era of Besóuro Mangaga were violent but smart applying malandragem in order not to be discovered and persecuted by the police.