11. Violence and gender

If we consider only violence, it is useful to analyse the potential differences between men and women. Regarding my observations in favela and inside the institution of capoeira, I can argue that violence is more frequent in men, more particularly in male youngsters. I have noted that men mostly became violent in conflicts on the streets or in the family. Such violence, which cannot be described as institutional violence is as a rule connected with aggressive behaviour. Geen's opinion is also that physical aggression can more frequently be connected with men than with women (Geen, 1998, p. 8). Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) argue that gender differences in expressions of aggression are consequences of inherent physical differences between men and women. Geen & Donnerstein (1983, pp. 24-26) cite White, who criticizes this view, because he is convinced that differences in expression of aggression are conditioned by differences in social practices. For example I have noticed that women playing in Mestre Alabama's school were in many cases playing more aggressive than the men, which might be the consequence of master Alabama teaching methodology. Women were motivated to apply kicks on men with full power when men were trained to avoid the kicks. Men and women also played against each other a lot when in some other school men would mostly play with men and women against women. Where women played against other women it was notable that the play was softer than when they were playing against men.  

Differences can be explained also in the context of different views on expressing aggression. Frodi, Macualay and Thome (1977, pp. 634-660) argue that women more than men consider violent expressions of aggression as inappropriate. It is more common that women control aggressive tendencies as they are more influenced by sensations of guilt and anxiety connected with violence. Campbell (2005, p. 639) writes about gender differences in the intensity of aggression, as a consequence of polygonal procreation processes. Since woman cannot procreate with several men at the same time, the employment of violence to win the partner represents unnecessary lost energy. Man on the other hand can acquire an additional female, employing violence in natural competition. Campbell (2005, p. 639) further argues that gender differences in violence can best be understood in terms of differences in parental investment. For example the death of the mother has more serious consequences for the survival of the offspring than the death of the father. This may be why women favour the avoidance of direct physical violence except in circumstances when failure to aggress posed even greater costs. Campbell (2005, p. 632) ascribes violence between partners to conflicts of interests between partners arising from attempts by one partner to be more invested than the other. Mild polygamy also means that a given foetus might be the only one that a male shares with particular female. Campbell (2005, p. 632) continues that monogamy is currently the most common form of marriage (except in some Muslim and Hindu cultures). However, monogamy has positive and negative consequences for both partners. Since negative costs of monogamy are different for a man and a woman, it may be one of the reasons for conflicts of interest. As soon as one of the partners wishes to decrease the negative costs of monogamy, this person is acting against the other’s interests. Study conducted by Fincham (2003) suggests, as Campbell (2005, p. 633) writes, that specific foci of conflict involve perceived inequality in the division of labour, infidelity, problematic drinking and drug use by one partner, and especially for wives, the perception of the husband spending their income foolishly.

Of great importance is also the difference in self-interpreting of aggression between men and women. Men are more likely to understand violent expression of aggression as instrumental behaviour with the aim to control people, while women perceive violently expressed aggression as a result of emotionally uncontrolled behaviour (Campbell, 1993, 2005; Campbell and Muncer 1987). Thus, while men characteristically see aggression as useful and satisfying, women tend to react to it with guilt and repression (ibid.). 

Archer and Parker (1994) claim that perception of aggression is a social construct, conditioned by social processes through which differences between male and female role are established. Harris (1993, pp. 199-211) writes that reactions by men and women are different in regards to same stress factors. When women are more frequently irritated by insolent, unkind behaviour and verbal assault, men get angry when physically attacked by other man (ibid.). In many public capoeira rodas I witnessed aggressive play and violence, sometimes resulting in real fight between two players. It is true that such behaviour occurred more times between men, however I witnessed several women playing violent. 

Paul, Foss and Galloway (1993, pp. 401-420) have concluded that women are more likely to be angry with unfaithful partners and the woman he was cheating on her with than the men. They verbally attack the partner and the rival in the case of infidelity. In Boca do Rio I witnessed a female neighbour verbally and physically attacking her husband when she was under the influence of alcohol, accusing him of infidelity and asking him to leave her house. Despite physical superiority the husband did not respond violently, since her drinking and her behaviour did not represent a conflict situation for him. Yet this example may only be an exception, considering that my interlocutors said that mostly drunk men act violently in family conflicts. It is even more usual that men are almost exclusive performers of street violence. My observations have shown that street violence in Salvador was prevalently if not even exclusively dominated by the young male population. Youngsters are involved in fights at private parties and open air concerts, some of them are members of street gangs executing armed assaults at beaches, buses and streets. They seek to provide financial resources to afford fashion products or beer in local bars. In that case theft is a mode of identifying oneself as a successful member of the consumer society.